Kodi mtima wa amphibians ndi chiyani: kufotokozera mwatsatanetsatane ndi mawonekedwe

Amfibia ali m'gulu la vertebrates miyendo inayi, okwana kalasi imeneyi zikuphatikizapo zikwi zisanu ndi chimodzi mazana asanu ndi awiri mitundu ya nyama, kuphatikizapo achule, salamanders ndi newts. Kalasi iyi imawonedwa ngati yosowa. Pali mitundu makumi awiri mphambu zisanu ndi zitatu ku Russia ndi mitundu mazana awiri makumi anayi kudza zisanu ndi ziwiri ku Madagascar.

Amphibians ali amoyo wam'mlengalenga, amakhala pakati pa zamoyo zam'madzi ndi zapadziko lapansi, chifukwa zamoyo zambiri zimaberekana ndikukula m'madzi, ndipo anthu omwe akhwima amayamba kukhala pamtunda.

amphibians kukhala ndi mapapo, zomwe amapuma, kuzungulira kwa magazi kumakhala ndi zozungulira ziwiri, ndipo mtima uli ndi zipinda zitatu. Magazi a amphibians amagawidwa kukhala venous ndi arterial. Kuyenda kwa amphibians kumachitika mothandizidwa ndi miyendo ya zala zisanu, ndipo zimakhala ndi zozungulira. Msana ndi chigaza zimafotokozedwa mosuntha. The palatine square cartilage amalumikizana ndi autostyle, ndipo himandibular amakhala ossicle kumva. Kumva mu amphibians ndikwabwino kwambiri kuposa nsomba: kuwonjezera pa khutu lamkati, palinso khutu lapakati. Maso asintha kuti azitha kuona bwino patali.

Pamtunda, amphibians samasinthidwa mokwanira kuti azikhala - izi zitha kuwoneka mu ziwalo zonse. Kutentha kwa amphibians kumadalira chinyezi ndi kutentha kwa chilengedwe chawo. Kukhoza kwawo kuyenda ndi kuyenda pamtunda n'kochepa.

Kuzungulira ndi kuzungulira

amphibians kukhala ndi mtima wa zipinda zitatu, imakhala ndi ventricle ndi atria mu kuchuluka kwa zidutswa ziwiri. Mu caudate ndi legless atria kumanja ndi kumanzere sikumalekanitsidwa kwathunthu. Anurans ali ndi septum yathunthu pakati pa atria, koma amphibians ali ndi mwayi umodzi womwe umagwirizanitsa ventricle ndi atria. Komanso, mu mtima wa amphibians pali venous nkusani, amene amalandira venous magazi ndi kulankhula ndi atrium yoyenera. The arterial chulucho adjoins mtima, magazi amatsanuliridwa mmenemo kuchokera ventricle.

The conus arteriosus ndi valavu yozungulira, yomwe imagawa magazi m'magulu atatu a ziwiya. Mlozera wamtima ndi chiŵerengero cha kuchuluka kwa mtima ndi kuchuluka kwa kulemera kwa thupi, zimatengera momwe chinyama chimagwirira ntchito. Mwachitsanzo, udzu ndi achule obiriwira amayenda pang’ono kwambiri ndipo kugunda kwa mtima kumakhala kosakwana theka la peresenti. Ndipo chule wokangalika ali ndi pafupifupi gawo limodzi mwa magawo XNUMX aliwonse.

Mu mphutsi za amphibians, kuzungulira kwa magazi kumakhala ndi bwalo limodzi, dongosolo lawo loperekera magazi ndi lofanana ndi nsomba: atrium imodzi mu mtima ndi ventricle, pali mitsempha ya mtsempha yomwe imalowa mumagulu 4 a mitsempha ya gill. Mitsempha itatu yoyamba imagawanika kukhala ma capillaries a kunja ndi mkati, ndipo nthambi za capillaries zimagwirizanitsa mu mitsempha ya nthambi. Mtsempha womwe umatulutsa nthambi yoyamba imagawanika kukhala mitsempha ya carotid, yomwe imapereka mutu ndi magazi.

mitsempha ya gill

Kuphatikiza wachiwiri ndi wachitatu efferent branchial mitsempha ndi kumanja ndi kumanzere kung'ambika mizu ndipo kugwirizana kwawo kumachitika mu dorsal aorta. Mitsempha yomaliza ya nthambi ya nthambi sinagawike m'ma capillaries, chifukwa pa khola lachinayi kulowa mkati ndi kunja kwamkati, msempha wakumbuyo umalowa mumizu. Kukula ndi mapangidwe a m'mapapo limodzi ndi kuzungulira kwa kukonzanso.

Atrium imagawidwa ndi septum yotalika kumanzere ndi kumanja, zomwe zimapangitsa mtima kukhala ndi zipinda zitatu. Maukonde a capillaries amachepetsedwa ndikusanduka mitsempha ya carotid, ndipo mizu ya dorsal aorta imachokera ku awiriawiri achiwiri, ma caudates amasunga yachitatu, pomwe yachinayi imasanduka mitsempha yapakhungu. Dongosolo la circulatory peripheral system limasinthidwanso ndipo limapeza chikhalidwe chapakati pakati pa dongosolo lapadziko lapansi ndi madzi. Kukonzanso kwakukulu kumachitika mu amphibian anurans.

Amphibians akuluakulu ali ndi mtima wazipinda zitatu: ventricle imodzi ndi atria mu kuchuluka kwa zidutswa ziwiri. Mitsempha yopyapyala yokhala ndi mipanda ya sinus imalumikizana ndi atrium kumanja, ndipo chulucho chimachoka mu ventricle. Tinganene kuti mtima uli ndi magawo asanu. Pali kutseguka kofala, chifukwa chake atria yonse imatsegulidwa mu ventricle. Ma valve a atrioventricular amapezekanso pamenepo, samalola kuti magazi alowenso mu atrium pamene ventricle ikugwirizanitsa.

Pali mapangidwe a zipinda zingapo zomwe zimalankhulana wina ndi mzake chifukwa cha kutuluka kwa minofu ya makoma a ventricular - izi sizilola kuti magazi asakanike. The arterial cone imachoka mu ventricle yolondola, ndipo cholumikizira chozungulira chimakhala mkati mwake. Kuchokera m'mitsempha ya cone iyi imayamba kuchoka pamagulu atatu, poyamba ziwiya zimakhala ndi nembanemba wamba.

Mitsempha ya m'mapapo yakumanzere ndi kumanja choka ku chulucho kaye. Kenako mizu ya aorta imayamba kuchoka. Mitsempha iwiri ya nthambi imalekanitsa mitsempha iwiri: subclavia ndi occipital-vertebral, imapereka magazi kumapazi ndi minofu ya thupi, ndikuphatikizana mu msempha wa dorsal pansi pa msana wa msana. Mtsempha wam'mbuyo umalekanitsa mtsempha wamphamvu wa enteromesenteric (mtsempha uwu umapereka magazi m'mimba). Ponena za nthambi zina, magazi amayenda mumsempha wa msempha kupita ku minyewa yakumbuyo ndi ku ziwalo zina.

Mitsempha ya carotid

Mitsempha ya carotid ndiyo yomaliza kuchoka ku arterial cone ndi ogawikana mkati ndi kunja mitsempha. The venous magazi ku nsonga miyendo ndi mbali ya thupi ili kumbuyo amasonkhanitsidwa ndi sciatic ndi femoral mitsempha, amene kuphatikiza mu aimpso zipata mitsempha ndi kusweka mu capillaries mu impso, ndiko kuti, dongosolo aimpso zipata aumbike. Mitsempha imachoka kumanzere ndi kumanja kwa mitsempha yachikazi ndikuphatikizana ndi mtsempha wa m'mimba wosagwirizana, womwe umapita ku chiwindi m'mphepete mwa khoma la m'mimba, kotero umasweka mu capillaries.

Mu mitsempha ya pachiwindi, magazi amatengedwa kuchokera m'mitsempha ya mbali zonse za m'mimba ndi matumbo, m'chiwindi umasweka kukhala capillaries. Pali kugwirizana kwa ma capillaries aimpso mu mitsempha, yomwe imakhala yothamanga ndikulowa mu vena cava ya posterior unpaired, ndipo mitsempha yochokera ku ziwalo zoberekera imayendanso kumeneko. The posterior vena cava imadutsa m'chiwindi, koma magazi omwe ali nawo samalowa m'chiwindi, mitsempha yaing'ono kuchokera ku chiwindi imalowa mkati mwake, ndipo imalowa mu venous sinus. Amphibians onse a caudate ndi anurans ena amakhala ndi mitsempha yam'mbuyo yam'mbuyo, yomwe imathamangira ku anterior vena cava.

magazi ochepa, yomwe imakhala ndi oxidized pakhungu, imasonkhanitsidwa mumtsempha waukulu wa cutaneous, ndipo mtsempha wapakhungu, nawonso, umanyamula magazi a venous mumtsempha wa subclavia mwachindunji kuchokera ku mitsempha ya brachial. Mitsempha ya subclavia imalumikizana ndi mitsempha yamkati ndi yakunja yamtsempha kupita kumanzere anterior vena cava, yomwe imatuluka mu venous sinus. Magazi kuchokera pamenepo amayamba kuyenda mu atrium kumanja. M'mitsempha ya m'mapapo, magazi otsika amatengedwa kuchokera m'mapapo, ndipo mitsempha imathamangira mu atrium kumanzere.

Magazi a arterial ndi atria

Pamene kupuma ndi m'mapapo mwanga, magazi osakanikirana amayamba kusonkhanitsa mu atrium kumanja: imakhala ndi venous ndi mitsempha ya magazi, magazi a venous amachokera m'madipatimenti onse kudzera mu vena cava, ndipo magazi otsika amabwera kudzera mu mitsempha ya pakhungu. magazi otsika amadzaza atrium kumanzere, magazi amachokera m'mapapo. Pamene kugundana kwa atria kukuchitika, magazi amalowa mu ventricle, kukula kwa makoma a m'mimba sikulola kuti magazi asakanike: magazi a venous amakula mu ventricle yolondola, ndipo magazi otsika kwambiri amakula kumanzere kwa ventricle.

Mtsempha wamagazi umachokera ku ventricle kumanja, kotero pamene ventricle imalowa mu kondomu, magazi a venous amayamba kulowa, omwe amadzaza mitsempha ya m'mapapo. Ngati ventricle ikupitiliza kugunda mu arterial cone, kuthamanga kumayamba kuwonjezeka, valavu yozungulira imayamba kusuntha ndipo imatsegula zitseko za aortic arches, mmenemo magazi osakanikirana amayenda kuchokera pakati pa ventricle. Ndi kukangana kwathunthu kwa ventricle, magazi otsika kuchokera kumanzere amalowa mu chulucho.

Iwo sadzatha kudutsa mu arched msempha ndi m`mapapo mwanga mitsempha cutaneous, chifukwa iwo kale magazi, amene ndi kuthamanga amphamvu amasuntha ozungulira valavu, kutsegula pakamwa pa carotid mitsempha, magazi ochepa adzayenderera kumeneko, amene adzatumizidwa. ku mutu. Ngati kupuma kwa m'mapapo kuzimitsidwa kwa nthawi yayitali, mwachitsanzo, m'nyengo yozizira pansi pamadzi, magazi ochulukirapo amatuluka m'mutu.

Oxygen imalowa mu ubongo pang'ono pang'ono, chifukwa pali kuchepa kwakukulu kwa kagayidwe kake kagayidwe kake ndipo nyama imagwera mu chibwibwi. Mu amphibians omwe ali mu caudate, dzenje nthawi zambiri limakhala pakati pa atria, ndipo valavu yozungulira ya arterial cone imakula bwino. Chifukwa chake, magazi osakanikirana kwambiri amalowa m'mitsempha yamagazi kuposa amphibians opanda mchira.

Ngakhale amphibians ali nazo magazi amapita mu mabwalo awiri, chifukwa chakuti ventricle ndi imodzi, sizimalola kuti alekanitse kwathunthu. Mapangidwe a dongosolo loterolo amagwirizana mwachindunji ndi ziwalo zopuma, zomwe zimakhala ndi machitidwe awiri ndipo zimagwirizana ndi moyo umene amphibians amatsogolera. Izi zimapangitsa kukhala kotheka kukhala pamtunda komanso m'madzi kuti mukhale ndi nthawi yambiri.

Mafupa ofiira

Mafupa ofiira a mafupa a tubular amayamba kuonekera mu amphibians. Kuchuluka kwa magazi okwana mpaka XNUMX peresenti ya kulemera kwake kwa amphibian, ndipo hemoglobini imasiyanasiyana kuchokera pawiri mpaka khumi peresenti kapena mpaka magalamu asanu pa kilogalamu ya misa, mphamvu ya okosijeni m'magazi imasiyana pakati pa awiri ndi theka mpaka khumi ndi atatu. peresenti, ziwerengerozi ndi zapamwamba poyerekeza ndi nsomba.

Amphibians ali ndi maselo ofiira akuluakulu, koma ndi ochepa a iwo: kuchokera makumi awiri mpaka mazana asanu ndi awiri mphambu makumi atatu zikwi pa kiyubiki millimeter ya magazi. Magazi a mphutsi ndi ochepa kuposa akuluakulu. Mu amphibians, monganso nsomba, kuchuluka kwa shuga m'magazi kumasinthasintha malinga ndi nyengo. Zimasonyeza zamtengo wapatali mu nsomba, ndi amphibians, caudates kuchokera khumi mpaka XNUMX peresenti, pamene anurans kuchokera makumi anayi mpaka makumi asanu ndi atatu peresenti.

Chilimwe chikatha, pali kuwonjezeka kwakukulu kwa chakudya m'magazi, pokonzekera nyengo yozizira, chifukwa chakudya chimawunjikana mu minofu ndi chiwindi, komanso masika, pamene nyengo yoswana imayamba ndipo chakudya chimalowa m'magazi. Amphibians ali ndi njira yoyendetsera kagayidwe kazakudya zama carbohydrate, ngakhale ndi yopanda ungwiro.

Mitundu itatu ya amphibians

amphibians amagawidwa m'magulu otsatirawa:

• Amphibians opanda mchira. Gululi lili ndi mitundu pafupifupi chikwi mazana asanu ndi atatu yomwe yasintha ndikuyenda pamtunda, kulumpha pamiyendo yakumbuyo, yomwe ndi yayitali. Dongosololi limaphatikizapo achule, achule, achule, ndi zina zotero. Pali zopanda mchira m'makontinenti onse, kupatulapo Antarctica. Izi zikuphatikizapo: achule enieni, achule a m’mitengo, a lilime lozungulira, achule enieni, ma rhinoderms, achule a mluzu ndi zotambalala.
• Amphibians amatha. Iwo ndi akale kwambiri. Pali pafupifupi mazana awiri mphambu makumi asanu ndi atatu amitundu yonse. Mitundu yonse ya ma newts ndi salamanders ndi awo, amakhala kumpoto kwa dziko lapansi. Izi zikuphatikizapo banja la protea, salamanders opanda mapapo, salamanders enieni, ndi salamanders.
• Amphibious opanda miyendo. Pali mitundu pafupifupi zikwi makumi asanu ndi zisanu, zambiri mwa izo zimakhala pansi pa nthaka. Amphibians awa ndi akale kwambiri, apulumuka mpaka nthawi yathu chifukwa amatha kuzolowera moyo wakukumba.

Mitsempha ya Amphibian ndi yamitundu iyi:

1. Mitsempha ya carotid imapereka magazi m'mutu.
2. Mitsempha yapakhungu-pulmonary - imanyamula magazi a venous kupita pakhungu ndi mapapo.
3. Mitsempha ya aorta imanyamula magazi omwe amasakanikirana ndi ziwalo zotsalira.

Amphibians ndi zolusa, zotupa zam'malovu, zomwe zimapangidwa bwino, chinsinsi chawo chimanyowa:

• chilankhulo
• chakudya ndi pakamwa.

Amphibians adawuka pakati kapena pansi pa Devonian, ndiko kuti pafupifupi zaka mazana atatu miliyoni zapitazo. Nsomba ndi makolo awo, ali ndi mapapo ndipo ali ndi zipsepse ziwiri zomwe, mwinamwake, miyendo ya zala zisanu idapangidwa. Nsomba zamakedzana zophikidwa ndi lobe zimangokwaniritsa zofunikira izi. Ali ndi mapapo, ndipo mu chigoba cha zipsepsezo, zinthu zofanana ndi zigoba za mwendo wapadziko lapansi wa zala zisanu zikuwonekera bwino. Komanso, mfundo yakuti amphibians anachokera ku nsomba zakale zotchedwa lobe-finned zimasonyezedwa ndi kufanana kwakukulu kwa mafupa amtundu wa chigaza, mofanana ndi zigaza za amphibians za nthawi ya Paleozoic.

Nthiti zapansi ndi kumtunda zinaliponso mu lobe-finned ndi amphibians. Komabe, lungfish, yomwe inali ndi mapapo, inali yosiyana kwambiri ndi nyama zakutchire. Choncho, maonekedwe a locomotion ndi kupuma, amene anapereka mwayi wopita kumtunda makolo a amphibians, ngakhale pamene iwo. zinali zamoyo zam'madzi basi.

Chifukwa chomwe chinali maziko a kusinthika kumeneku chinali, mwachiwonekere, ulamuliro wachilendo wa malo osungiramo madzi abwino, ndipo mitundu ina ya nsomba za lobe-finned inkakhala mmenemo. Izi zitha kukhala kuyanika nthawi ndi nthawi kapena kusowa kwa oxygen. Chinthu chotsogola kwambiri pazamoyo chomwe chidakhala chotsimikizika pakutha kwa makolo ndi nkhokwe ndikukhazikika kwawo pamtunda ndi chakudya chatsopano chomwe adapeza kumalo awo atsopano.

Ziwalo zopuma mu amphibians

Amphibians ali nazo kupuma ziwalo zotsatirazi:

• Mapapo ndi ziwalo zopuma.
• Gills. Amapezeka mu tadpoles ndi ena okhala m'madzi.
• Ziwalo zowonjezera kupuma mu mawonekedwe a khungu ndi mucous akalowa a oropharyngeal patsekeke.

Mu amphibians, mapapo amaperekedwa ngati matumba ophatikizidwa, opanda mkati. Amakhala ndi makoma omwe ndi ochepa kwambiri mu makulidwe, ndipo mkati mwake muli maselo opangidwa pang'ono. Komabe, amphibians ali ndi mapapu ang'onoang'ono. Mwachitsanzo, mu achule, chiŵerengero cha pamwamba pa mapapu ndi khungu chimayesedwa pa chiŵerengero cha awiri kapena atatu, poyerekeza ndi zinyama, zomwe chiŵerengerochi ndi makumi asanu, ndipo nthawi zina chiŵerengero chachikulu cha mapapu.

Ndi kusintha kwa kupuma kwa amphibians, kusintha kwa njira yopumira. Amphibians akadali ndi kapumidwe kakale kokakamizika. Mpweya umakokedwa m’mphako yapakamwa, chifukwa cha zimenezi mphuno zimatseguka ndipo pansi pa m’kamwa kumatsika. Kenaka mphuno zimatsekedwa ndi ma valve, ndipo pansi pakamwa pakamwa pamatuluka chifukwa cha mpweya umalowa m'mapapo.

Kodi dongosolo lamanjenje lili bwanji mu amphibians

Mu amphibians, ubongo umalemera kwambiri kuposa nsomba. Ngati titenga kuchuluka kwa kulemera kwa ubongo ndi misa, ndiye mu nsomba zamakono zomwe zili ndi cartilage, chiwerengerocho chidzakhala 0,06-0,44%, mu nsomba za fupa 0,02-0,94%, mu amphibians tailed 0,29. -0,36%, mu amphibians opanda mchira 0,50-0,73%.

Ubongo wam'mbuyo wa amphibians ndi wotukuka kuposa nsomba; panali kugawikana kotheratu kukhala ma hemispheres awiri. Komanso, chitukuko chimasonyezedwa mu zomwe zili ndi chiwerengero chachikulu cha maselo a mitsempha.

Ubongo umapangidwa ndi magawo asanu:

1. Ubongo waukulu kwambiri, womwe umagawidwa m'magawo awiri a hemispheres ndipo uli ndi lobes olfactory.
2. Diencephalon yopangidwa bwino.
3. Kusatukuka kwa cerebellum. Izi ndichifukwa choti kuyenda kwa amphibians ndikosavuta komanso kosavuta.
4. Pakatikati pa kayendedwe ka circulatory, kugaya chakudya ndi kupuma ndi medulla oblongata.
5. Masomphenya ndi kamvekedwe ka minofu ya chigoba amayendetsedwa ndi midbrain.

Moyo wa amphibians

Moyo womwe amphibians amatsogolera umagwirizana mwachindunji ndi thupi lawo komanso kapangidwe kawo. Ziwalo zopuma zimakhala zopanda ungwiro m'mapangidwe - izi zimagwira ntchito m'mapapo, makamaka chifukwa cha izi, chizindikiro chimasiyidwa pazinthu zina zamagulu. Chinyezi nthawi zonse chimatuluka pakhungu, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti amphibians azidalira kukhalapo kwa chinyezi m'chilengedwe. Kutentha kwa chilengedwe kumene amphibians amakhala nakonso kofunika kwambiri, chifukwa alibe kutentha kwa magazi.

Oimira kalasiyi ali ndi moyo wosiyana, kotero pali kusiyana kwa dongosolo. Kusiyanasiyana ndi kuchuluka kwa amphibians kumakhala kokwera kwambiri kumadera otentha, komwe kumakhala chinyezi chambiri ndipo pafupifupi nthawi zonse kutentha kwa mpweya kumakhala kokwera.

Kuyandikira kwa mtengo, mitundu ya amphibians imakhala yochepa. Pali zamoyo zochepa zopezeka m'madzi am'madzi m'madera owuma ndi ozizira padziko lapansi. Kulibe amphibians komwe kulibe malo osungira, ngakhale osakhalitsa, chifukwa mazira amatha kumera m'madzi okha. Palibe amphibians m'madzi amchere amchere, khungu lawo silisunga kuthamanga kwa osmotic ndi chilengedwe cha hypertonic.

Mazira samera m’masungidwe a madzi amchere. Amphibians amagawidwa m'magulu otsatirawa malinga ndi malo okhala:

• madzi,
• zapadziko lapansi.

Zapadziko lapansi zimatha kupita kutali ndi matupi amadzi, ngati ino sinyengo yoswana. Koma m'madzi, M'malo mwake, amathera moyo wawo wonse m'madzi, kapena pafupi kwambiri ndi madzi. Mu caudates, mitundu yam'madzi imakhala yochuluka, mitundu ina ya anurans ingakhalenso yawo, ku Russia, mwachitsanzo, awa ndi dziwe kapena achule a m'nyanja.

Arboreal amphibians kufalitsidwa kwambiri pakati pa dziko lapansi, mwachitsanzo, achule a copepod ndi achule amitengo. Amphibians ena a padziko lapansi amakhala moyo woboola, mwachitsanzo, ena alibe mchira, ndipo pafupifupi onse alibe miyendo. Okhala pamtunda, monga lamulo, mapapo amakula bwino, ndipo khungu silimakhudzidwa kwambiri ndi kupuma. Chifukwa cha izi, sadalira kwambiri chinyezi cha chilengedwe chomwe amakhala.

Amphibians amachita zinthu zothandiza zomwe zimasinthasintha chaka ndi chaka, zimatengera kuchuluka kwawo. Zimasiyana pazigawo zina, nthawi zina komanso nyengo zina. Amphibians, kuposa mbalame, amawononga tizilombo tomwe timamva kukoma ndi kununkhira koyipa, komanso tizilombo tokhala ndi mtundu woteteza. Pafupifupi mbalame zonse zowononga tizilombo zikagona, amphibians amasaka.

Asayansi akhala atcheru khutu ku mfundo yakuti nyama za m’madzi zimapindulitsa kwambiri monga zopha tizilombo m’minda ya masamba ndi m’minda ya zipatso. Olima wamaluwa ku Holland, Hungary ndi England adabweretsa achule ochokera kumayiko osiyanasiyana mwapadera, kuwamasula m'malo obiriwira ndi minda. Cha m'ma XNUMX, pafupifupi mitundu zana limodzi ndi makumi asanu ya achule a aga idatumizidwa kunja kuchokera ku Antilles ndi Hawaiian Islands. Anayamba kuchulukirachulukira ndipo achule oposa miliyoni imodzi adatulutsidwa m'minda ya nzimbe, zotsatira zake zidaposa zomwe amayembekezera.

Kuwona ndi kumva kwa amphibians

Maso a Amphibian amateteza kutsekeka ndi kuwuma zosunthika m'munsi ndi kumtunda zikope, komanso nembanemba ya nictitating. Kornea imakhala yopingasa ndipo lens lenticular. Kwenikweni, amphibians amawona zinthu zomwe zimayenda.

Ponena za ziwalo za makutu, khutu lomveka komanso khutu lapakati zidawonekera. Maonekedwe awa ndi chifukwa chakuti kunakhala kofunikira kuzindikira bwino kugwedezeka kwa mawu, chifukwa sing'anga ya mpweya imakhala ndi kachulukidwe kakang'ono kuposa madzi.